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2 People Start Their Day or 2 People Starts Their Day Grammar Language Arts

Learning a linguistic communication is a circuitous, time-intensive job that requires dedication, persistence, and hard piece of work. If y'all're reading this, so you probably already know that.

What yous might not know is that in that location are strategies that can help you study more finer, so that you make the well-nigh of your fourth dimension and energy. This handout first explains some of the central principles that guide constructive language learning, and then describes activities that can help yous put these principles into practice. Employ these tools to create a strategic study plan that helps your language skills abound.

Key principles of language learning

The Basics:

First, let's talk almost the basics. Enquiry in this surface area (called "2d language conquering" in academia) suggests that there are iii key elements to learning a new language.

  • The starting time is comprehensible input, which is a fancy way of saying being exposed to (hearing or reading) something in the new language and learning to sympathise information technology.
  • Comprehensible output is the second element, and unsurprisingly it means learning to produce (speak or write) something in the new language.
  • The third element is review or feedback, which basically ways identifying errors and making changes in response.[ane]

Fancy terms aside, these are actually pretty straightforward ideas.

These three elements are the building blocks of your linguistic communication exercise, and an constructive report plan will maximize all three. The more than you lot listen and read (input), the more than you lot speak and write (output), the more you become back over what you've washed and learn from your errors (review & feedback), the more your language skills volition grow.

DO: Create a study plan that maximizes the three dimensions of language learning: understanding (input), producing (output), and identifying and correcting errors (review/feedback).

Seek residue

Learning a new linguistic communication involves listening, speaking, reading, writing, sometimes even a new alphabet and writing format. If you lot focus exclusively on merely i action, the others fall behind.

This is actually a common pitfall for language learners. For example, it'due south easy to focus on reading comprehension when studying, in part because written language is often readily attainable—for one thing, you have a whole textbook full of it. This is also true of the iii key elements: it's insufficiently piece of cake to find input sources (similar your textbook) and practice agreement them. But neglecting the other ii primal principles (output and feedback/review) tin ho-hum down language growth.

Instead, what you lot need is a counterbalanced study program: a mix of study activities that target both spoken and written language, and gives attention to all three fundamental principles.

DO: Focus on balance: do both spoken and written language, and make sure to include all of the three key principles—input, output, and feedback/review.

Errors are of import

Sometimes, the biggest claiming to language learning is overcoming our ain fears: fright of making a mistake, of saying the incorrect matter, of embarrassing yourself, of non existence able to observe the right discussion, then on. This is all perfectly rational: anyone learning a language is going to brand mistakes, and sometimes those mistakes will be very public.

The thing is, you NEED to make those mistakes. One of the key principles of language learning is all about making errors and then learning from them: this is what review & feedback means. Plus, if you're not willing to make errors, then the corporeality of language you lot produce (your output) goes way down. In other words, being afraid of making a error negatively affects two of the 3 key principles of linguistic communication learning!

So what do y'all exercise? In part, yous may need to push yourself to get comfortable with making errors. Nevertheless, you should also look for ways to get low-stakes practice: create situations in which you feel more than comfortable trying out your new language and making those inevitable mistakes.

For example, consider finding a study partner who is at your level of linguistic communication skill. This is often more comfortable than practicing with an advanced student or a native speaker, and they're usually easier to detect—you've got a whole class full of potential partners!

Practise: Learn to appreciate mistakes, and push yourself to get more comfortable with making errors.

DO: Create opportunities for 'depression-stakes' practice, where you'll feel comfy practicing and making mistakes.

Spread it out

Studying a new language involves learning a LOT of material, so y'all'll want to use your study time as finer as possible. According to research in educational and cerebral psychology, one of the near constructive learning strategies is distributed practice. This concept has 2 principal components: spacing, which is breaking study fourth dimension up into multiple small sessions, and separation, which means spreading those sessions out over time.[2]

For example, allow's imagine y'all have a list of vocabulary words to learn. Today is Lord's day, and the vocab quiz is on Friday. If yous tin can only spend a total of 30 minutes studying this vocab, which study programme volition be the nigh constructive?

(A) Study for thirty minutes on Thursday.
(B) Study for 10 minutes at a fourth dimension on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday.
(C) Written report for 10 minutes at a fourth dimension on Sunday, Tuesday, and Th.
(D) Study for 30 minutes on Sunday.

If you look at the total time spent studying, all four options are exactly the same. But research suggests that choice C is the about effective way to manage your fourth dimension: instead of studying the vocabulary all at once, y'all've spread out the time into several shorter sessions, and you've also increased the amount of time between report sessions. (And yeah, this is too why "cramming" isn't a skilful study plan!)

DO: Break up your written report time into shorter chunks and spread those sessions out over time.

Bump up your memory

Memory is a critical role of whatever kind of studying, and constructive memorization is strongly correlated with success in foreign language classes.[3] But if you're not "skilful at" memorizing things, don't despair! Although people often think of memory as a fixed quality, information technology'south actually a skill that you can ameliorate through deliberate practice.

There's a considerable amount of inquiry on how retentiveness works, as well as a broad range of strategies for improving memory. For example, scientific experiments testify that our curt-term memory can but hold about 7 pieces of new information at once. So if yous're working on a long listing of new vocabulary words, start by breaking information technology upwardly into smaller chunks, and study i shorter section at a fourth dimension. Additionally, research also suggests that remember-based written report methods are most effective. This means that actively trying to recall information is more effective than simply reviewing information; essentially, self-testing will aid you more than re-reading your notes will.[4]

The best way to showtime working on your memory is to build on the techniques that you already know work for you lot. For example, if associating a discussion with a picture is effective for you, then you lot should incorporate images into your vocabulary do. However, if y'all're not certain where to offset, here's a "beginner" formula for memorizing a new discussion: utilise the give-and-take at least v times the first day that you lot larn it, then multiple times over the week, at least once every solar day.

If you're interested in more tips for improving your memory, check out our resource on memorization strategies.

In addition to figuring out which memorization techniques work best for you, it'south also important to actively protect your memory. For example, experiencing a strong emotion has been shown to sharply subtract the ability to memorize unrelated content. (And then if you've but watched a horror movie, it'due south probably not a not bad time for vocabulary review!)

To get the most out of your study time, hither's a list of common "memory killers" to avert:

Stress and anxiety: Simply like other strong emotions, stress and anxiety drastically reduce your power to make new memories and retrieve information.

Data overload: Studying for hours at a time might seem like a bully idea, simply information technology'due south really a really ineffective use of fourth dimension. In fact, taking a brusk interruption every 30 minutes helps improve focus, and after 2 hours you should consider switching topics.

Fatigue: The more than tired you are, the less effective your retention is. Chronic slumber deprivation is particularly detrimental, and so those late-night written report sessions might actually practice more impairment than good!

Multitasking: As you may take noticed, all of these "memory killers" are also things that disrupt focus. Multi-tasking is probably the most common source of distraction. In fact, hither'southward a great rule of thumb for protecting your retentiveness: if y'all're not supposed to do it while driving, and so yous shouldn't practise it while studying. (Yes, that means drinking, texting, and watching Netflix "in the groundwork" are all NOs.)

Practice: Increase memorization by breaking information into pocket-sized chunks and studying the chunks one at a time, and by using recall-based strategies like self-testing.

DO: Focus on protecting and improving your memorization skills, and build the retentiveness techniques that work all-time for you into your study plan.

Vocab is king

Want to know a underground? Vocabulary is more than important than grammar.
DISCLAIMER: This does Not mean that grammar is unimportant. Without grammer, you won't know how to use your vocabulary, since grammer tells yous how to combine words into sentences. And plain, if you lot're in a strange language class, you're going to need to study ALL the material to practice well, and that will definitely include grammar.
The more vocabulary you know, the more quickly y'all can grow your language skills. The reason is simple: understanding more words directly translates into more input, producing more words means more output, and more output means more than opportunity for feedback. Additionally, when you lot're interacting with native speakers, vocabulary is more than beneficial to communication than grammar is. Existence able to produce words will help get your pregnant beyond, fifty-fifty if what you say is not perfectly grammatical.[5]

Of grade, in gild to get fully fluent in your new linguistic communication, eventually you will need strong grammar skills. But one time over again, this is something that having a strong, well-developed vocabulary will help with. Since grammer dictates relationships between words and phrases, understanding those smaller components (aka vocabulary) will assist better your agreement of how those grammatical relationships piece of work.

Practise: Design a study plan that emphasizes vocabulary.

Activities

At present that we've talked about the general principles that you should incorporate in your language study, allow'southward focus on activities: practical suggestions to help you find new means to grow your language skills!

Find existent-life sources

Since one of the main 3 components of language learning is input, wait for ways to expose yourself to every bit much of the language you're learning as possible. But this doesn't mean reading more than textbooks (unless your textbook is a fascinating read that you lot're excited near). Instead, look for "authentic" examples of the language, things you lot'll really enjoy and expect forward to practicing with, fifty-fifty if you don't understand every word!

Here are some examples to get you started:

Paper manufactures, magazines, & blogs: Many of these are freely available online, and one time y'all've tried reading them a few times, it'southward like shooting fish in a barrel to interpret the fundamental parts to bank check your understanding. Expect for a topic yous're already interested in and follow it with a news reader app!

Books: Children'southward movie books and books you've read before in your native linguistic communication are easy options for intermediate/advanced beginners. The library frequently has great options available for gratuitous!

TV shows and movies: Try watching them without subtitles the start fourth dimension, starting in ~15 minute segments. Another great option is to watch first without any subtitles, then with subtitles in the language you're learning, and then finally with subtitles in your native linguistic communication if yous need them. Soap operas are also keen options (especially if you like lots of drama!), since the plot lines are often explained multiple times.

Songs: Music, especially popular songs, can be specially well suited to language exercise, since you're likely to memorize the ones y'all enjoy. Ask a teacher or native speaker for recommendations if you lot're struggling to discover good examples. Children's songs can also be fun practice tools.

Podcasts and sound books: At that place are a lot of options for all sorts of languages, and equally a bonus you'll often get exposure to local news and cultural topics. To get y'all started, nosotros recommend this site, which has a groovy listing of podcasts for many different languages.

Also, consider tweaking some of your media settings to "crash-land upwards" your coincidental language exposure. For example, changing your Facebook and LinkedIn location and language preferences volition force yous to interact with the linguistic communication you're learning, fifty-fifty when y'all're (mostly) wasting fourth dimension.

Pro tips

Meliorate the effectiveness of this activity by using the following suggestions!

Boring information technology down: If you're listening to a podcast or audio book, try slowing down the speed merely a scrap: 0.75x is a common choice, and the slowed-down audio still doesn't sound too strange. Also, make sure to take breaks often to help you lot procedure what you've just heard.

Combine your senses: In many cases, you can combine types of input to help create a more learning environs: reading and listening to a text at the same time tin help yous improve your comprehension. For example, for TV shows and movies, turn on subtitles in the same language. Other options include:

  • Radio news stories oft have both audio and transcripts bachelor online, especially for pieces that are a few days erstwhile.
  • Amazon's Kindle offers an "immersive reading" selection that syncs audio books with text.
  • TED talks come up in many different languages, and often include an interactive transcript.
  • If you're an ESL student, the ESL Bits website has some bang-up resource that link reading and listening, and it also has adjustable audio speeds!

Get hooked: To brand this strategy as constructive as possible, find a source that you really enjoy, and commit to experiencing information technology only in the language you're learning. Having a go-to program that you beloved will help go along you lot motivated. For example, if you lot love podcast/radio story programs like "Radiolab" and are learning Castilian, bank check out "Radio Ambulante."

Hold shadow conversations

A key office of learning a new language involves training your ear. Unlike written language, voice communication doesn't have the same context clues that help you decipher and separate out words. Plus, in add-on to using slang and idioms, native speakers tend to "smoosh" words together, which is even more confusing for language learners![6] In role, this is why listening to real-life sources can exist so helpful (see the previous action).

However, even beginning language learners tin can do good from something called conversational shadowing. Basically, this means repeating a conversation word-for-give-and-take, even when you don't know what all of the words hateful. This helps you lot get used to the rhythm and patterns of the language, as well every bit larn to identify private words and phrases from longer chunks of spoken language. Another great strategy involves holding practice conversations, where you create imaginary conversations and rehearse them multiple times.

Both of these strategies are slap-up ways to help you larn and retain new vocabulary, and they besides increase your language output in a low-stakes practice setting!

Case: If y'all've got a homework practice that involves reviewing an sound or video prune, take a few actress steps to get the nigh benefit:

  • After you've listened to the prune one time, shadow the chat in short sections (think ~twenty-30 seconds). Focus on reproducing the words equally accurately as possible, paying shut attention to rhythm, intonation, and pacing.
  • Once you can accurately shadow the entire prune, then focus on understanding the pregnant of the fabric, and reply whatsoever homework questions related to the clip.
  • At present, use the same vocabulary to create a new conversation: think of what yous would desire to say in a real-life state of affairs similar this 1, and practice information technology until you can answer confidently to any side of the exchange.

Go a collector

Since expanding your vocabulary is so of import, identifying new words is a big priority. This is peculiarly true when you're in an immersion environment (studying away, etc), merely it's also something that you can do on a regular ground even when you're at home.

Basically, you need to collect words: whatsoever time y'all encounter a new word, you desire to capture it by recording it in some style. The easiest fashion to do this is in a small pocket notebook, but y'all could too put a note in your phone, transport a text or electronic mail to yourself, or even tape yourself maxim it. The key point is to capture the word equally quickly and hands every bit possible. Also, don't worry too much about spelling or definitions in the moment: you lot'll bargain with those afterwards.

Whatever your recording system is (notebook, phone, vocalism memo, etc), it'due south merely the first part of the collection process. Adjacent, you'll need to review each of the words you've recorded. This is something yous'll practise on a regular basis, then that you can actually use the words y'all've recorded. Depending on how many new words you're collecting, it might be every day, every few days, or once a calendar week. This is the time when you find the correct spelling, write down the definition, maybe find an example, and and then on.

To brand this process every bit effective as possible, you also desire to have some sort of system that helps yous record and organize your word drove. If you like paper-based methods, so flashcards tin can exist easily organized in index bill of fare boxes, though you might want to include some alphabetical divider tabs to aid yourself stay organized. However, digital tools are particularly helpful with this kind of information, and in that location are tons of apps that can help y'all organize a large vocabulary drove. But you don't need a fancy app or program: a simple spreadsheet also works great for well-nigh cases.

Finally, you as well want to make certain to utilise your word collection! Not just do you need to learn new words once you add them, you'll likewise need regular review of old words to maintain your vocabulary. This is some other place where digital tools shine, since it's easy to admission the entire collection at any time, making it easier to study and review on a regular basis. In any case, make sure that you incorporate review along with learning new words.

The 4 basic steps of word drove

  1. Capture new words. Listen for them in class, seek them out in conversations, find them in your "authentic sources," etc. Tape them in the moment, without worrying also much about spelling and definitions.
  2. Review your new words. Establish a routine then that you regularly "empty out" your recording tool and add the new words to your collection.
  3. Record and organize your collection. Create an organized arrangement for your collection; common tools include digital flashcard apps, spreadsheets, and traditional alphabetize cards.
  4. Employ your words! Make sure you're learning new additions and likewise periodically reviewing older words.

Pro tips

  • If you're struggling to discover new words to collect—or if you feel overwhelmed by the number of words you could collect—so try working "backwards." Instead of looking for new words in the linguistic communication you're learning, call up about the gaps in your vocabulary. For instance, call up about the topics you frequently discuss in your native language. Practice yous know how to talk about those things in the linguistic communication yous're learning? Hobbies and other classes are oftentimes smashing places to first.
  • If you're in a strange language form, you tin can use the same word collection system to help you lot larn and review assigned vocabulary. Consider color-coding or tagging words that are class-related if y'all want to give those words actress attention. If you're using a digital flashcard app, you might consider creating different card "sets" to help you organize them.

Flashcard zen

Flashcards are one of the most common tools that language learners use. There is a adept reason for this: they're hands portable, they're excellent for learning short pieces of data (similar new words), and used correctly they're a great recall-based report strategy. However, flashcards are non without issues. For example, it's far as well easy to devote excessive fourth dimension to making elaborately detailed flashcards, and so spend insufficiently picayune time actually using them! The following tips describe ways to use flashcards in a strategic and effective manner.

Less is more than

The more fourth dimension y'all spend making flashcards, the less time you spend using them…but if you don't make flashcards, then you don't have whatsoever to use. The point behind this paradox is that y'all want to minimize the time and effort you lot put into the flashcard ready-up process. This is a state of affairs where perfectionism can actually harm you: if you focus on making absolutely "perfect" flashcards, then y'all're really just wasting time.

Similarly, you also want to minimize the volume of information you put on each flashcard. Flashcards should non exist pages of notes in a smaller format, especially when using them for vocabulary. Instead, each card should have just plenty information on it to exam your memory. Instead of containing many details, a adept flashcard will serve equally a "cue" that triggers your retentivity. This way, you're forcing your encephalon to work to produce the information, which helps build and maintain stiff memories.

Mix information technology upwards

Some other common flashcard issue is that they promote rote memorization, so that data is divorced from context. Merely in existent life, you'll be using your vocabulary in a broad range of contexts. Only practicing vocabulary in rote drills may end up slowing you down when you demand to actually apply the words.[7]

One example of this is the "translation" miracle: instead of learning to associate new words with their meanings, they get associated with the word in your native language. If you're always translating word-for-word in your caput, so it takes much longer to understand and collaborate. A great way to reduce this consequence is to alter the type of cues used on your flashcard: instead of written words, you might represent the meaning of new words with a movie—or for digital flashcards, y'all could even utilise audio files.

Example: Imagine a beginning student (and native English language speaker) learns that the Arabic word for door is "bab" (باب). She could make several different flashcards for this word:

  • Traditional flashcard: the written word in Arabic on one side, and in English on the other
  • Sound flashcard (digital): the spoken Arabic word on i side, and the spoken word in English on the other
  • Pictoral flashcard: a picture of a door on one side, and the word written in Arabic on the other

Y'all can besides combine these types to brand different hybrid-manner flashcards. Once again, don't attempt to brand elaborate, perfect flashcards—just something that will push you lot to associate words with meanings, instead of just their translations. Not all of your flashcards have to use non-written cues, simply information technology's a great style to add together variety and forestall "translation" retentiveness.

Additionally, brand sure to exercise using both sides of the flashcards as cues. In other words, if yous've already gone through a set of cards starting with the English side, flip the stack over the next fourth dimension you lot use it, and then that you're getting prompted by the linguistic communication you're learning.

You can also avert the pitfalls of rote memorization by making certain to practice using the words in context. For case, in addition to testing yourself with each card, follow that upward by using the word in a sentence. This is peculiarly good for words yous've already learned and are now reviewing. Y'all can also turn this into a game, where you make upwards "mad-lib" manner sentences by randomly drawing cards and combining them. If you're working with a partner or written report group, you can also use flashcards to play games like charades or Pictionary.

Make it a habit

Ultimately, flashcards are just a tool, albeit one that is ideally suited to vocabulary practise. And as with whatever kind of practice, the more fourth dimension you put in, better your results will exist: flashcards work best when used ofttimes and consistently. If you desire to get the virtually out of your flashcards, plow using them into a regular habit. Here are some tips to keep in mind:

Small sets, many reps: To meliorate memorization when practicing new words, create sets of 7 flashcards or less and exercise each set several times before moving on to the adjacent i. Also, brand sure to space out your flashcard sessions, and one time you've reviewed a set of words, put it aside for a day or two before reviewing it again.

Increase portability: Make sure you take full reward of the portable nature of flashcards. If you're using paper, then consider using a folder band and hole dial to continue small sets together. You might too use smaller cards: since you'll exist making elementary cards (minimalism!), you could probably cut a regular 3"x5" index card into halves (or fifty-fifty quarters) and nonetheless have more enough room! Even if you utilize full-sized newspaper cards, you increase portability past being selective in the number yous take with you. Remember, you want to infinite out your sets and reps, so information technology isn't necessary to carry all your cards with you all the time. If you lot're using digital tools, look for apps that tin sync to all your devices—phone, tablet, calculator, web, etc.

Wasted' time: Since flashcards are and then portable, they're a great way to turn "wasted" time into useful time. How much time do yous spend riding the bus? How about stuck in line at the grocery store, or waiting for an date at Campus Health? Instead of checking your Twitter feed or hopping on Facebook, open upwardly your flashcard app (or pull out your flashcard stack) and do a quick vocab review. If you're doing small sets it won't take very long to get through one, and you've just bumped up your number of reps for the twenty-four hours!

Create a routine: Habits are powerful. One time y'all've established a beliefs pattern, yous find yourself doing it without thinking about it. So think about how you tin can create a daily routine for using your flashcards. Finding and using "wasted" time is a good start, especially if you have a daily bus commute. What nearly taking v minutes every morning to do vocabulary review while you lot drink your java? Or making it your first "after-dinner to do" one time you've finished eating? Once you lot observe ways to make vocabulary flashcards part of your daily routine, you lot tin employ the ability of habit to help grow your vocabulary.

Periodic review: Once yous've learned new words, y'all're not done with those flashcards—instead, use them to go along your vocabulary stiff. Each calendar week, randomly select a few words to review. You might do a review ready once each day, or the review words tin exist mixed in with your current learning sets (this is a great way to keep your word collection going strong!).

Brand it fun

Learning a new language is a lot of work, but that's not what motivated you to start studying it in the first identify, right? Instead, you probably want to travel or work abroad, or exist able to talk with people from other countries, perchance even study literature or history… Whatsoever got y'all interested in this language in the first place, it's probably a lot more fun than all this studying is.

Here's the affair: whenever you can practice something that connects you back with the reasons that motivate you to study your new linguistic communication, or you detect something new and exciting about the language you're studying or the cultures that use it, use your excitement to heave your motivation. It'south what will go along y'all going—and that kind of persistence is a key factor in linguistic communication learning success.[8]

But in addition to staying focused on what you lot enjoy, you lot can too deliberately create fun social activities that also help yous abound your language skills. For case, endeavor hosting a dinner and movie "theme" night with friends who are studying the same language. Create a "mini-immersion" surround: watch movies in the language yous're learning, melt some authentic cuisine, and try to speak only in your new (shared!) language. It's a slap-up mode to get some accurate, low-stakes practice. (Plus, it'due south a bang-up alibi for a party!)

Parting advice

In addition to this handout, at that place are lots of resources to help you with your language learning goals.

  • If you're in a language grade, your professor, TA, and/or other instructors ofttimes accept great advice for study strategies—in addition to their teaching experience, at one signal they were learning a new linguistic communication, just like you are!
  • Check out what the language department offers: perhaps there is a peer tutoring program, or conversation tables (aka "linguistic communication java hours"), or cultural events that can be great authentic sources for practice (and fun motivation boosters). Language departments often accept online resources also, so exist certain to check out their websites.
  • Look for other campus organizations that offering language learning resources, such equally global studies and student groups.

UNC language departments, programs, and curricula

  • Department of Asian Studies
  • Section of African, African American, and Diaspora Studies
  • Department of Romance Studies
  • Department of High german and Slavic Languages and Literatures
  • Program in American Indian and Indigenous Studies
  • Curriculum in Global studies

Works consulted

Murphey, T. (1998). Language hungry!: An introduction to language learning fun and cocky-esteem. Nihon: MacMillan Language house.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, One thousand. A., Marsh, Due east. J., Nathan, One thousand. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques promising directions from cerebral and educational psychology. Psychological Scientific discipline in the Public Involvement, 14(1), four-58.

Brown, H. D., & Gonzo, Southward. T. (1995). Readings on second linguistic communication conquering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.

O'Malley, J. Thousand., Chamot, A. U., & Küpper, L. (1995). Listening comprehension strategies in 2nd linguistic communication acquisition. Readings on second language conquering, 138-160.

Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. The Mod Language Journal,73(4), 404-419.

Nunan, David. Second Linguistic communication Teaching & Learning. Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 7625 Empire Dr., Florence, KY 41042-2978, 1999.

Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(three), 379-399.

[ane] Brown & Gonzo, 1995; Ellis, 1997; Nunan, 1999

[2] Dunlosky et al, 2013; Son & Simon, 2012

[three] Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Enquiry on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional problems. The Modern Linguistic communication Journal,73(4), 404-419.

[4] Dunlosky et al, 2013

[v] Murphey, T. (1998). Linguistic communication hungry!: An introduction to linguistic communication learning fun and self-esteem. Japan: MacMillan Languagehouse.

[6] Nunn, 1999; Murphey, 1998

[7] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989

[8] Nunan, 1999; Oxford & Crookall, 1989, Brown & Gonzo, 1995.

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